Introduction

Resilience is a concept that has gained attention across multiple disciplines, evolving to address the increasing complexity and uncertainty of modern challenges. At its core, resilience refers to the capacity of a system to absorb disturbances, adapt to changing conditions, and maintain essential functions (Ahern, 2011). In ecological systems, resilience is often defined as an ecosystem’s ability to recover from shocks—such as natural disasters or environmental degradation—while preserving its structural and functional integrity (Scordato & Gulbrandsen, 2024). This ecological perspective has shaped resilience frameworks in various sectors, emphasizing the importance of adaptability and recovery.

The mining industry, facing increasing environmental and regulatory pressures, has begun to adopt resilience frameworks to ensure the continued safe and sustainable management of their operations. Tailings disposal plays a central role in the industry’s overall resilience due to the safety and environmental risks associated with improper disposal. Historically, tailings dams have been the predominant method for managing mining by-products. However, the limitations of these systems have led to the exploration and implementation of alternative disposal methods. Dry stacking, backfilling, and reuse are now being considered for their potential to reduce risks and improve environmental outcomes (IBRAM, 2016; Global Tailings Review, 2020). These alternatives provide more stability, particularly when dealing with the challenges posed by climate change and evolving regulatory frameworks.

In addition to the shift towards alternative disposal methods, tailings management is intertwined with resilience principles. Mining operations must adapt to evolving regulations and climate-related challenges as the industry faces greater scrutiny regarding environmental and social impacts. The shift to dry stacking, for instance, presents several uncertainties, including the geotechnical performance of dry-stacked materials over time and concerns about dust emissions (Alvarenga, 2023; IBRAM, 2016). The adoption of such methods requires careful consideration of their long-term effectiveness, operational costs, and regulatory compliance. In this context, resilience extends beyond traditional approaches to tailings management, and it incorporates flexibility, proactive adaptation, and continuous monitoring to ensure that mining operations can withstand future disruptions.

As the mining industry confronts these challenges, resilience in operations and tailings management supports the continuity of activities, minimizing risks, and ensuring sustainable practices. This article explores how the mining industry is addressing the ongoing challenges of tailings disposal, particularly in light of increasing environmental risks, regulatory changes, and the push for more sustainable practices. The discussion will focus on the technical and regulatory challenges, the emerging alternatives to traditional methods, and the uncertainties that remain in the context of industry efforts to enhance the resilience of mining operations.

Conceptual Foundation: What is Resilience?

Resilience is a concept that has garnered attention across multiple disciplines and has evolved in response to the complexity and uncertainty of modern challenges. At its core, resilience refers to the capacity of a system to absorb disturbances, adapt to changing conditions, and maintain essential functions (Marchese et al., 2018). In ecology, resilience is often described as an ecosystem’s ability to recover from shocks, such as natural disasters or environmental degradation, while maintaining its structural and functional integrity (Scordato & Gulbrandsen, 2024). This ecological perspective has been influential in shaping resilience frameworks in other sectors, emphasizing the importance of adaptability and recovery.

The application of resilience in engineering often involves designing systems that can withstand extreme events, such as earthquakes, floods, or industrial accidents, and return to normal operations swiftly (ICMM, 2024). In this context, resilience is not only about survival but also about learning and evolving from disruptions to improve future responses. Similarly, in the mining industry, resilience is integral to managing tailings and other operations under the pressures of regulatory changes, environmental risks, and operational shifts.

Social resilience, a concept rooted in the capacity of communities to respond to socio-economic challenges, mirrors these principles in environmental and engineering contexts. It emphasizes the ability of communities to adapt to economic downturns, climate change, or social unrest, while maintaining social cohesion and improving well-being (Marchese et al., 2018). Just as ecosystems and infrastructures are designed for resilience, so too must social systems evolve to address challenges in a proactive and adaptable manner. This broader view of resilience has gained prominence in global development initiatives, especially in the face of escalating climate change risks and socio-economic disparities (Scordato & Gulbrandsen, 2024).

In recent discussions, resilience has expanded beyond its initial focus on systems recovery to include broader perspectives on sustainability and adaptive governance. Ahern (2011) emphasizes the shift from “fail-safe” to “safe-to-fail” models, particularly in urban and environmental systems, highlighting that resilience is not about preventing failure entirely but about creating systems that can learn from disruptions and continue to function under new conditions. Similarly, Bodin and Wiman (2020) underscore the importance of adaptive management in complex social-ecological systems, where resilience involves continuous learning, flexibility, and collaboration to navigate changing environmental and social dynamics. These frameworks suggest that resilience, in both natural and human systems, should focus on fostering the capacity to adapt and evolve in the face of uncertainty, rather than simply aiming for recovery from disturbances. This approach is increasingly applied to industries like mining, where resilience involves not only managing tailings and environmental risks but also adapting operations to future uncertainties, regulatory shifts, and climate change challenges.

Resilience in Mining

Resilience in the mining sector encompasses the capacity of mining operations to absorb, adapt to, and recover from a variety of challenges, including environmental, operational, and regulatory disruptions. This concept is not limited to the ability to withstand shocks but extends to the initiative-taking adaptation of mining systems to ensure their continued functionality in response to evolving conditions (Marchese et al., 2018). As the mining industry faces increasing uncertainties, such as the impacts of climate change, regulatory changes, and shifts in public expectations, resilience becomes a expected characteristic of sustainable operations. It is important that resilience be integrated into both the design and execution of mining operations, especially in the context of tailings management, where the risks associated with traditional disposal methods, such as tailings dams, have prompted the industry to adopt more secure and adaptive approaches (Marchese et al., 2018; IBRAM, 2022).

These alternatives enhance the stability of tailings management, particularly in the face of climate change and shifting regulatory landscapes. As global standards for environmental and social governance evolve, mining operations must integrate resilience into their management frameworks to ensure compliance and reduce exposure to regulatory risks. Resilient mining operations are those that not only comply with existing regulations but are also capable of anticipating future regulatory changes and adapting their operations accordingly. This adaptive capacity is critical in maintaining operational continuity and minimizing disruptions that may arise from unforeseen legal or environmental challenges. Furthermore, the ability to integrate resilience into regulatory compliance fosters a culture of continuous improvement, where mining companies proactively seek out opportunities to enhance the sustainability and safety of their operations (Marchese et al., 2018; IBRAM, 2022).

The socio-economic dimensions of resilience also play a role in mining operations. The impacts of mining on surrounding communities can significantly affect the overall resilience of mining projects. Mining companies that foster positive relationships with local communities and stakeholders are better equipped to manage the socio-political risks associated with their operations. Effective community engagement, transparent communication, and the implementation of programs that mitigate adverse social impacts are important for building social resilience. By addressing the needs and concerns of local communities, mining companies can enhance their reputation, secure social licenses to operate, and minimize the risks of conflict or disruption. Thus, resilience in mining must not only focus on technical and regulatory aspects but also on the social and economic well-being of the communities that are affected by mining activities (IBRAM, 2022).

Climate change poses an increasing challenge to the mining sector, and it influences both the operational and environmental aspects of mining activities. Rising temperatures, more extreme weather events, and shifting precipitation patterns can disrupt mining operations, particularly in regions dependent on water resources for processing or cooling (IGF, 2023). The increased frequency of droughts, floods, and storms can also damage infrastructure, such as roads, tailings storage facilities, and processing plants, thereby affecting operational continuity. Furthermore, changes in climate conditions may alter the availability of key resources, such as water and energy, which are central for mining operations. In this context, resilience requires the mining industry to integrate climate change projections into their long-term planning and risk management frameworks, ensuring that operations can adapt to these emerging environmental conditions (IGF, 2023).

The impacts of climate change on mining are particularly relevant for tailings management, as shifting rainfall patterns and extreme weather events can exacerbate the risks of tailings dam failures.

The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM, 2024) emphasizes that climate change must be factored into the design, construction, and monitoring of tailings management systems. The risk of flooding, for instance, can lead to the overtopping of tailings dams, causing catastrophic failure. Additionally, changes in temperature and precipitation can affect the stability of dry stacking systems, requiring additional monitoring and maintenance efforts. Therefore, mining companies must not only adapt their practices to these climate impacts but also invest in infrastructure that is designed to withstand extreme weather events and ensure long-term resilience (IBRAM, 2022).

As highlighted in ICMM, Mining companies recognize the necessity of incorporating climate change considerations into long-term planning, ensuring that operations can withstand shifting environmental conditions and regulatory frameworks (ICMM, 2019; IISD, 2023). This involves not only understanding current risks, such as extreme weather events and water scarcity, but also preparing for future challenges that may arise as climate change continues to impact the sector (Sæther et al., 2021; Coulson, 2019). By adopting comprehensive climate risk management strategies, mining operations can enhance their adaptive capacity, ensuring that they are prepared to address both immediate and long-term disruptions (ICMM, 2019; UNDRR, 2020). Moreover, collaboration across the industry is vital, with shared knowledge and practices helping to establish more effective and sustainable solutions to the challenges posed by a changing climate (Global Tailings Review, 2020).

To address these challenges, mining companies must actively adopt climate resilience frameworks that include climate risk assessments as part of their overall operational strategy. These frameworks encourage companies to integrate climate adaptation into their project development, operations, and closure plans. By identifying climate-related risks and opportunities, mining companies can make informed decisions to strengthen their operations, reducing vulnerabilities and ensuring that infrastructure is built to withstand the evolving impacts of climate change (IFC, 2024).

Tailings Disposal: Current Challenges

The management of tailings plays a central role in ensuring the resilience of the mining industry, given the environmental and safety risks associated with improper disposal. Historically, tailing dams have been the predominant method for managing mining by-products, offering cost-effectiveness and the capacity to store large volumes of waste. These dams are typically constructed using natural soil or the tailings themselves, designed to support the deposition of waste over extended periods (IBRAM, 2016). The most common designs for tailings dams include upstream, downstream, and centerline methods, each differing in construction techniques and stability (IBRAM, 2016).

However, following incidents such as the Brumadinho Dam Failure, concerns over the long-term safety and environmental integrity of tailings dams have grown. As a result, the mining industry has increasingly explored alternative methods, such as dry stacking and backfilling, which provide safer, more flexible disposal options (Alvarenga, 2023; IBRAM, 2016). Dry stacking, involving the dewatering of tailings through filter presses, produces a solid material that is more stable and less prone to failure than water-saturated tailings (IBRAM, 2016). This method reduces the risk of failure, offers environmental benefits, such as reduced water consumption, and has the potential for recycling and reuse (Alvarenga, 2023; IBRAM, 2016). Similarly, backfilling, which uses tailings to fill mined-out pits, reduces waste volume and stabilizes the surrounding environment. These methods have been viewed as safer alternatives that enhance the flexibility of tailings management, despite presenting technical challenges (ICMM, 2024; IBRAM, 2016).

The adoption of alternative disposal methods like dry stacking introduces several technical uncertainties that need to be addressed. One primary concern is the geotechnical stability of dry-stacked tailings. After dewatering and compaction, these materials may experience settlement and shifting over time, especially when subjected to external forces such as heavy rainfall, seismic events, or temperature fluctuations. The long-term behavior of dry-stacked tailings is still under study, and there is not sufficient data to predict their performance over several decades. These uncertainties raise concerns about the durability and resilience of dry-stacked storage systems, as the stability and structural integrity of the stacked material are not yet fully understood (Alvarenga, 2023; IBRAM, 2016).

Another challenge associated with dry stacking is the potential for dust emissions. Dewatering tailings can results in a dry, loose material that can easily generate dust, especially in windy or dry conditions. Dust from tailings storage can have detrimental effects on air quality and human health, necessitating the implementation of dust management strategies. Although methods such as water sprays or chemical binders have been suggested, these solutions introduce additional operational costs and complexities (IBRAM, 2016). The effectiveness of these dust control measures remains debated, and there is no standardized approach to dust management in dry-stacked tailings facilities, adding to the operational complexity of this method (ICMM, 2020).

Additionally, the logistical and operational challenges of dry stacking must be considered. Specialized equipment such as filter presses is required to dewater the tailings, and the dry materials need to be stored in compact piles, demanding increased storage capacity. According to Alvarenga (2023), the initial investment in the technology and infrastructure required for dry stacking is substantial, and the ongoing operational costs for maintenance and monitoring further complicate its adoption, particularly for smaller mining operations. Although dry stacking mitigates seepage and water retention risks, the method’s high initial and operational costs pose challenges for smaller mining companies.

The “Mining Regulatory Standards” (NRM 19) in Brazil mandate geotechnical studies and environmental impact assessments for tailings management methods, ensuring their safety and long-term sustainability (DNPM, 2002). However, these regulations were primarily designed for tailings dams and may not fully address the distinct challenges associated with newer methods like dry stacking and backfilling. Consequently, limited guidance exists on how to effectively apply these regulations to alternative disposal technologies, which creates gaps in ensuring that these methods meet safety standards and are implemented properly (IBRAM, 2016). This gap highlights the need for regulatory frameworks to evolve alongside new technologies, ensuring a robust framework for the management of emerging disposal methods.

In response to this challenge, the Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management (GISTM) promotes an interdisciplinary approach that integrates environmental, technical, and social considerations throughout the lifecycle of tailings facilities (Global Tailings Review, 2020). Although GISTM provides a framework for traditional tailings dams, it has yet to fully address the challenges posed by newer technologies like dry stacking. From a normative perspective, the increase of these methods presents a challenge to existing regulatory frameworks. Although some regulatory changes have been made in response to the Recent dam failures, these revisions have not fully adapted to the realities of alternative tailings disposal technologies. As a result, the gap between regulation and innovation often leads to ambiguity in enforcement and compliance, complicating the ability of mining companies to navigate the evolving legal landscape. Therefore, it is critical for regulatory bodies to revise existing standards to incorporate emerging technologies, ensuring that all disposal methods undergo rigorous safety, environmental, and social impact assessments.

However, alongside the adoption of dry stacking and backfilling as alternative disposal methods, the mining industry is also exploring ways to transform tailings into co-products, such as aggregates and sustainable sand. A key example of this is Agera initiative, which focuses on producing Sustainable Sand from iron ore tailings (Vale, 2023). This innovation reduces the volume of tailings while aligning with the growing focus on circular economy principles, which advocate for reducing waste and optimizing resource use. By repurposing tailings into marketable products, mining companies can reduce the volume of waste that needs to be managed while generating new revenue streams. The incorporation of co-products in mining tailings management, however, is not without its challenges. The technologies required for transforming tailings into reusable products, such as sustainable sand, demand specialized infrastructure and pose logistical challenges that need to be carefully considered (Alvarenga, 2023).  Despite uncertainties, the integration of co-products in mining tailings management presents a promising opportunity for reducing the overall environmental footprint of mining operations and enhancing the sustainability of the sector.

Evaluation of Tailings Disposal Methods: Advantages and Disadvantages

Based on the discussion above, the following table summarizes the positive and negative aspects of the main tailings disposal methods: Dry Stacking, Tailings Dams, Pit Filling, and Reuse. It compares their advantages and disadvantages based on the reviewed literature.

Conclusion

Resilience in the mining sector requires a multi-faceted approach to ensure long-term sustainability, particularly in the context of tailings management. As this article has demonstrated, resilience is not simply about withstanding disturbances but involves adapting to evolving conditions and mitigating risks, including environmental, operational, and regulatory challenges (Marchese et al., 2018).

The mining industry’s exploration of alternative tailings disposal methods, such as dry stacking and backfilling, reflects an effort to absorb and adapt to these challenges. While these methods provide opportunities to reduce environmental impacts, they introduce new uncertainties, particularly regarding long-term stability and operational costs, which require further technical exploration and regulatory adaptation (IBRAM, 2016; Alvarenga, 2023).

The use of single methods for disposal, poses risks to the resilience of mining operations, especially when faced with changing environmental conditions, evolving regulatory frameworks, and increasing public scrutiny. Relying on a single disposal method can weaken the entire process chain, leading to operational disruptions and increased vulnerabilities. To ensure the continuity of operations and mitigate future risks, it is necessary for the mining industry to diversify its tailings management practices. Integrating complementary solutions, such as the repurposing of tailings into co-products, offers a way to enhance operational flexibility and reduce waste volume, as exemplified by Agera initiative, which transforms iron ore tailings into sustainable sand (Vale, 2023). The adoption of diversified disposal methods ensures the industry’s ability to absorb environmental and regulatory shocks, further strengthening the resilience of mining operations. Regulatory frameworks, such as GISTM and NRM 19, must evolve to address the specific challenges posed by these innovations, ensuring that tailings disposal methods remain safe, adaptable, and resilient (Global Tailings Review, 2020; ANM, 2020). Therefore, it is critical for the mining industry to embrace a diversified approach to tailings disposal, ensuring that operations remain resilient and sustainable in the long term.